Quantitative assessment of soil contaminants, particularly hydrocarbons, using reflectance spectroscopy

ABSTRACT

Apparatus and method for efficiently assessing the results of reflectance spectroscopy on a soil sample to determine the presence of contaminants in the soil, by constructing a model based on analysis of known samples. The model may be constructed using an all possibilities approach and data mining techniques, on a range of samples, for example of different kinds of soil without pollutants and with different levels of pollutants. The Disclosure relates both to the construction of the model and to its use in the field in analyzing soil contaminants.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/424,855 filed on Feb. 5, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/916,766, filed on Jun. 13, 2013, which claimsthe benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.61/659,494 filed on Jun. 14, 2012. The contents of the aboveapplications are all incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein in their entirety.

FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, in some embodiments thereof, relates toquantitative assessment of hydrocarbon contamination in soil usingreflectance spectroscopy and more particularly but not exclusively tothe quantitative assessment of hydrocarbon contamination using nearinfra-red spectral assessment and a modeling approach such as artificialneural networks, fuzzy logic, partial least squares, support vectormachine, and metric learning.

The term “hydrocarbon contamination” is intended to include all kinds ofartificial organic pollutants in soil that can be identified byreflectance spectroscopy.

Petroleum hydrocarbons are contaminants of great significance. Thecommonly used analytic method for assessing Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons(TPH) in soil samples, is based on extraction with1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane (Freon 113), a substance prohibited foruse by the EPA.

During the past twenty years, a new quantitative methodology has beenwidely developed that utilizes the reflected radiation of solids. Byusing this approach, the reflectance radiation across the VNIR-SWIRregion (400-2500 nm) is modeled against constituents determined bytraditional analytic chemistry methods and then used to predict unknownsamples. This technology is environmental friendly and permits rapid andcost-effective measurements of large number of samples. Thus, thismethod dramatically reduces chemical analytical costs and secondarypollution, enabling a new dimension of environmental monitoring.

With production rates of 13.42 million cubic meters of crude oil per day(Energy Information Administration, 2009), petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC)potential as soil and water contaminants is apparent and of particularsignificance. PHC are well known to be neurotoxic to humans and animals.PHC were found to affect brain activity and development as well as tocause nausea, disorientation, mental confusion, speech slurring andmemory disorders. Exposure to higher levels can cause extremedebilitation, loss of balance, and may even lead to coma, seizures andlethality. Long term exposure is proven to cause changes inneurophysiological or psychological capacity and is further known toinduce increased risk of lung, skin and bladder cancer alongside othercarcinogenic effects (Hutcheson et al., 1996; Boffetta et al., 1997;Ritchie et al., 2001). For both the diagnosis of suspected areas and thepossibility of controlling the rehabilitation process, there is a needto develop and implement a method to rapidly detect and assess PHC insoils.

Due to the complex nature and structure of PHC ingredients, a generalmeasurement index “Total PHC” (TPH) was defined and is the commonmeasurement index for quantifying environmental contamination originatedby PHC. The TPH level is determined by the ratio of IR absorptionmeasured per sample extraction, relative to the IR absorption of the EPAstandard consisting of 31.5% isooctane, 35% hexadecane and 33.5%chlorobenzene.

The common method for assessing TPH in soil samples is based on the nolonger approved Environment Protection Agency (EPA) method 418.1. TheEPA withdrew this method due to the use of Freon 113, an ozone depletingmaterial. Nevertheless, this method is still commonly used worldwide, insome countries (i.e. Israel), this method is the only method used forsite investigation. The method was developed originally to assess TPH inwaste water but was later adjusted in order to assess TPH in soilsamples. Not only was this method withdrawn by the EPA, but it is alsoproblematic for various other reasons such as the need for skilledoperators, the process length and cost, the difficulties in using it insitu, availability of the extracting solvent being very limited, theneed for transporting samples to the laboratory etc.

The spectral properties of hydrocarbons were identified in the late1980's, although it was argued that these properties are only visible atconcentrations of 4% wt. and above (Cloutis, 1989). In the mid 1990's aNIR reflectance sensor was developed as a proof of concept for thedetection of organic matter in soil, based on the spectral propertiesidentified by Cloutis (ibid). The sensor was designed for the detectionof Benzene in soil at a minimal concentration of 4.4% wt, severalconfigurations were tested and minimal information is provided(Schneider et al., 1995). Soon after, the U.S. Department of Energycontracted a private company to investigate the application ofreflectance spectroscopy as a tool to determine motor oil contaminationin sandy loam. A schematic design for a field instrument was suggested,but only one type of PHC contaminant and one type of soil were tested.In addition, a small number of samples were used at a very limitedcontamination range (Stallard et al., 1996).

A more inclusive study was conducted shortly after using three types ofsoil contaminated in the laboratory with diesel and gasoline. 0.1% wt.and 0.5% wt. minimum detection limits were achieved respectively(Zwanziger and Heidrun, 1998). The first study utilizing field collectedsamples, was not able to produce robust models but rather led to verylow correlations (r=0.68) and large errors, probably due to the limitednumber of samples and problems with the analytic chemistry measurementsdone by the laboratory that produced inconsistent measurements (Malleyet al., 1999). Attempts at mapping hydrocarbons using the Landsat andDaedalus sensors in 1994 and 1995 failed, probably due to the limitedspectral resolution of the sensors (multispectral sensors, 7 and 12bands respectively) (Kühn and Hörig, 1995; Honig et al., 2001).Nevertheless, a later study, utilizing the higher spatial and spectralresolutions as well as the very high signal to noise ratio of the HyMapHSR airborne scanner (128 bands) (Cocks et al., 1998), yielded asuccessful identification of hydrocarbons and oil contaminated soils butfor high consecrations only (2.5% wt) (Honig et al., 2001). Based on theHyMap mission, a Hydrocarbon Index was developed for mapping hydrocarbonbearing materials. This index is limited to very high signal to noiseratio sensors as well as other issues, such as problems with land cover,vegetation and high concentration detection levels (Kühn et al., 2004).

The most comprehensive work on reflectance properties of hydrocarbonswas conducted by Winkelmann (2005): several types of hydrocarbons weremixed with several types of soil under laboratory conditions. They weremeasured spectrally and an attempt was made to separate them intohydrocarbon groups using the reflectance spectra; hyperspectral airborneremote sensing was also applied to identifying hydrocarboncontamination. No quantitative models were tested, although this wasmentioned as an avenue of further study (Winkelmann, 2005). A recentstudy by Chakraborty et al. (2010) on the prediction accuracy ofVNIR-SWIR reflectance spectroscopy of petroleum contaminated soil,showed fair validation results (R²=0.64). The study included 46 fieldcollected samples that were preprocessed and modeled by severaltechniques.

Chakraborty et al. continued collecting field samples, and applied thestatistical approach of the previous study. By using kriging, theyproduced TPH distribution maps of the contaminated site that match wellwith the topography of the study site. Sorak et al. started exploringthe possibility of using a hand held Phazir portable spectrometer forTPH determination. They started by preparing several artificiallycontaminated samples in the laboratory with diesel and oil and creatingNear Infrared Analysis (NIRA) models.

While the above mentioned studies addressed concentration levels of 0.1%wt and above, nowadays environmental regulations require precisionlevels of an order of magnitude lower. A comprehensive researchincluding several types of PHC at a wide concentration range is needed,especially at very low concentrations.

During the past twenty years, a new quantitative methodology named NIRA(Near Infrared Analysis) or NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy) has beenwidely developed (Williams and Norris, 1987). This approach was adopted40 years ago from a strategy developed in the food science discipline(Ben-Gera and Norris, 1968a; b), whereas today it is widely utilized inmany industrial and scientific applications. By using the NIRA approachthe reflected radiation across the VIS-NIR-SWIR region (400-2500 nm) ismodeled against constituents determined by traditional chemicalanalysis. The constructed model is then used to assess unknown samples.Visible light has also been used.

In order to remove any irrelevant information, which cannot be handledproperly by the modeling techniques, spectral preprocessing techniquesare used. The preprocessing techniques include averaging, centering,smoothing, standardization, normalization and transformations, amongothers.

Introduced in 1983 by Wold et al., partial least squares regression(PLS) is similar to principal component regression (PCR), but in PLS theprinciple components or latent variables (PCs, LVs) are constructed suchthat they include the chemical reference (Y variables, dependent data)in the calculation process. This technique orders the PCs according totheir relevance for predicting the dependent variables, rather than totheir description of the most variance of the spectral data. This methodexcels when the dependent data (X variables) express common information,as usually happens in spectral data. The required number of PCs istypically smaller than that in a PCR calibration model for similar modelperformance (Wold et al. 1983; Esbensen et al. 2002; Nicolaï et al.2007). As the PLS process is based on LVs, using the optimal number ofLVs (nLV) is crucial. On one hand including as much data as possiblewill improve performance, but on the other hand only the first LVsrepresent the relevant data whereas the rest are noise (Esbensen et al.1994). Keeping the model as simple as possible by using the minimumnumber of LVs is very important to prevent over fitting, but it is alsocritical to include all the LVs that contain the data relevant for themodeling process in question. In short, the optimal nLV should beselected for representing the property in question and not the noise.

Modeling of spectroscopy data refers to relating a set of spectralparameters that are derived from the spectral information (before orafter the aforementioned preprocessing treatment), to the chemical orphysical properties of the material in question by using a set ofwell-known samples. The data are divided into three groups: training,validation and test. The relationship between the property in questionand the spectroscopy data is found via the training group andsimultaneously cross-validated by the validation group. Finally, themodel is applied to the test group, independently of the training andvalidation processes. Division of the data into the training, validationand test groups is done by using a well known algorithm (Minasny andMcBratney, 2006) that takes into account the reference valuesdistribution in order to create the training, validation and test groupsin a way that would best represent the entire dataset.

Reflectance spectroscopy permits environmental friendly, rapid andcost-effective measurements of many samples and therefore functions as asubstitute for the costly and time consuming chemical analysis. Due tothe numerous combinations of preprocessing techniques as well as datasetdivisions there is a lack of effective tools to allow reflectancespectroscopy methods to be used effectively in situ and so today it isnot possible to provide an automated and optimized NIRA modeling systemfor hydrocarbon contamination analysis in soils in a way which is rapid,accurate, and cost effective, solely from reflectance spectroscopy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present embodiments provide a method for efficiently assessing theresults of reflectance spectroscopy on a soil sample to determine thepresence of contaminants in the soil, by constructing a model based onanalysis of known samples. The model may be constructed using an allpossibilities approach and data mining techniques, on a range ofsamples, for example of different kinds of soil without pollutants andwith different levels of pollutants. The present disclosure relates bothto the construction of the model and to its use in the field inanalyzing soil contaminants.

An embodiment is a way of efficiently assessing the results ofreflectance spectroscopy on a soil sample to determine the presence ofcontaminants in the soil, by constructing a model based on analysis ofknown samples. An exemplary model is the partial least squaresregression model referred to above, however, the model is constructedusing an all possibilities pre-processing approach and data miningtechniques as will be discussed hereinbelow, on samples of differentkinds of soil without pollutants and with different levels ofpollutants. It was noted by the present inventors that NIRA calibrationprocesses can be strongly affected by the various preprocessingtechniques, and thus a new “brute force” approach is suggested; in whichall possibilities of common preprocessing methods are tested before themodeling stage is applied.

According to an aspect of some embodiments of the present inventionthere is provided a method and apparatus for quantitative assessment ofhydrocarbon contamination in soil using reflectance spectroscopy and amodel. The near infra-red spectral region may be used with partial leastsquares assessment, and an all-possibilities approach may be used, aswill be explained below.

According to a further aspect of the present invention there is provideda method and apparatus for construction of a stable model forreflectance spectroscopy assessment of soil for contaminationassessment.

The model may be generated using an all possibilities approach on arange of test samples of different kinds of soils with differentcontaminations. The samples are analyzed using spectroscopy or spectralimaging, and the spectral datasets may be preprocessed in differentways, as detailed herein. In the all-possibilities approach, a set ofmultiple different preprocessing techniques are provided which operateon the spectral data, and different combinations of the preprocessingoperations are carried out on the data. In theory all possiblecombinations of the techniques may be used, and thus for a set of eightpreprocessing operations, 250 data sets may be created. However inpractice certain combinations make no sense, so typically only 120 ofthe 250 possible datasets would be used. Furthermore, different numbersand types of samples may be used.

The modeling may lead to multiple initial model results, which can thenbe selected for stability.

The performance of the model may be assessed using a model performancescoring (MPS) parameter, which may be defined asMPS=% Stability+NRPD−NRMSEP−NnLV.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and/or scientific terms usedherein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinaryskill in the art to which the invention pertains. Although methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used inthe practice or testing of embodiments of the invention, exemplarymethods and/or materials are described below. In case of conflict, thepatent specification, including definitions, will control. In addition,the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are notintended to be necessarily limiting.

Implementation of the method and/or system of embodiments of theinvention can involve performing or completing selected tasks manually,automatically, or a combination thereof. Moreover, according to actualinstrumentation and equipment of embodiments of the method and/or systemof the invention, several selected tasks could be implemented byhardware, by software or by firmware or by a combination thereof usingan operating system.

For example, hardware for performing selected tasks according toembodiments of the invention could be implemented as a chip or acircuit. As software, selected tasks according to embodiments of theinvention could be implemented as a plurality of software instructionsbeing executed by a computer using any suitable operating system. In anexemplary embodiment of the invention, one or more tasks according toexemplary embodiments of method and/or system as described herein areperformed by a data processor, such as a computing platform forexecuting a plurality of instructions. The data processor may include avolatile memory for storing instructions and/or data and/or anon-volatile storage, for example, a magnetic hard-disk, flash memoryand/or removable media, for storing instructions and/or data. A networkconnection may be provided and a display and/or a user input device suchas a keyboard or mouse may be available as necessary.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

Some embodiments of the invention are herein described, by way ofexample only, with reference to the accompanying drawings. With specificreference now to the drawings in detail, it is stressed that theparticulars shown are by way of example and for purposes of illustrativediscussion of embodiments of the invention. In this regard, thedescription taken with the drawings makes apparent to those skilled inthe art how embodiments of the invention may be practiced.

In the drawings:

FIG. 1A is a flow chart showing a process for generating a model foranalyzing soil samples according to a first embodiment of the presentinvention;

FIG. 1B is a block diagram of a device for generating the model of FIG.1A and also for using the model to test soil samples;

FIG. 2A is a graph showing an example of a stable model;

FIG. 2B is a graph showing an unstable model;

FIG. 3 is a simplified diagram showing an architecture for blocks usedin operation of the present embodiments;

FIG. 4 is a graph showing RPD distribution for a Loess soil samplecontaminated with diesel;

FIG. 5 is a graph showing MPS distribution for a Loess soil samplecontaminated with diesel;

FIG. 6 is a graph showing smoothing and first derivative preprocessingfor a Loess soil sample contaminated with diesel; and

FIGS. 7A-7F are comparisons of best RPD models with best score models.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, in some embodiments thereof, relates toquantitative assessment of hydrocarbon contamination in soil usingreflectance spectroscopy.

The present embodiments adapt the quantitative methodology referred toabove, by use of the above-mentioned all-possibilities approach, anddevelop steps in which hydrocarbon contamination in soils can bedetermined rapidly, accurately, and cost effectively solely fromreflectance spectroscopy. Artificial contaminated samples are analyzedchemically and spectrally to form a database of 5 soils contaminatedwith 3 types of PHC, creating 15 datasets of 48 samples each atcontamination levels of 50-5000 wt % ppm. A brute force preprocessingapproach combines 8 different preprocessing techniques at allpossibilities, resulting in 120 different mutations for each dataset. Acomputing system that supports the all-possibilities approach wasdeveloped for this study and is discussed below. A new parameter forevaluating model performance scoring (MPS) is provided based on acombination of several common statistical parameters. The data isdivided into training, validation and test sets and resulting effects onmodeling accuracy are shown. The results predict TPH levels at lowconcentrations in selected soils at relatively high precision levels.Dividing a dataset into training, validation and test groups affects themodeling process and different preprocessing methods or theircombinations need to be selected based on soil type and PHC type. MPSwas found to be a better parameter for selecting the best performingmodel than RPD, yielding models with the same performance but which wereless complicated and more stable. The use of the all possibilitiessystem proved to be useful for efficient optimal modeling of reflectancespectroscopy data.

Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, itis to be understood that the invention is not necessarily limited in itsapplication to the details of construction and the arrangement of thecomponents and/or methods set forth in the following description and/orillustrated in the drawings and/or the Examples. The invention iscapable of other embodiments or of being practiced or carried out invarious ways.

Referring now to FIG. 1A, a method for quantitative assessment ofhydrocarbon contamination in soil using reflectance spectroscopy isshown in a flow chart.

An initial stage 10 involves obtaining soil samples from severaldifferent soil types having different hydrocarbon contamination levels.

Each sample is analyzed using spectral imaging or spectroscopy, toobtain spectroscopy data of the sample in stage 12.

In stage 14 different combinations of preprocessing operations areapplied to the spectroscopy data obtained in the previous stage. A setof preprocessing operations is provided and all possible combinationsare set up. Then certain combinations which make no sense or introduceexcessive complications may be removed, and each remaining combinationis used to generate a separate mutation of the data set.

Then in box 16, a model is built up using all of the mutations. Themodel relates the preprocessed spectral data to the different soils andcontamination levels.

The model may then be verified in box 18 using the model withspectroscopy data of soil samples of known contamination, and finallythe model is used against unknown samples to determine the unknowncontamination.

The model in box 14 may be any data mining model. In an embodiment themodel was built using data mining processes to indicate latentvariables—box 20. The latent variables are added one by one in aniterative process to the model, using partial least squares regression,and retained if they reduced the estimation error, until an optimalnumber of latent variables were included—box 22.

Aside from latent variables, any other method of dimension reduction orwavelength selection may be used in a suitable modeling technique.

The model is tested for stability in box 24, as will be described later.

In an embodiment, the set of preprocessing operations includes initialsmoothing, multiplicative scatter correction, standard normal variate,absorptance, continuum removal, first derivative, second derivative, andfinal smoothing. The all possibilities approach involves generating allthe reasonable combinations of the above set.

Typically the reasonable combinations are between a third and a half ofall possible combinations, so that for the above eight operations, thetotal possibilities are 256 combinations, but only 120 of these areconsidered reasonable.

For example, from all the possible combinations one may exclude forexample those combinations that contain mutually incompatiblepreprocessing operations, and combinations that provide results that arecomplex numbers containing imaginary components.

In the above, model stability was mentioned. The model may be testedusing a model performance scoring parameter (MPS) defined as:MPS=% Stability+NRPD−NRMSEP−NnLV.wherein the % Stability is obtained by dividing a number of stablemodels by a number of repetitions for each mutation, NRPD is anormalized average of a ratio of prediction to deviation, NRMSEP is anormalized root mean square error in prediction, and NnLV is anormalized optimal number of latent variables.

The spectroscopy used may be near infra-red spectroscopy, in which casethe spectral imaging or spectroscopy may be carried out within awavelength range lying between 350 and 2500 nm.

Data mining operations that may be used may comprise both linear andnon-linear algorithms.

The data mining operations may include artificial neural networks,genetic algorithms, support vector machines, fuzzy logic, partial leastsquares, multiple linear regression and principle component regression.

The pre-processed spectroscopy data may be arranged into datasets usingconditioned Latin Hypercube Sampling. Data may be needed for separatetraining, validation and test sets and the way the data is divided mayaffect the final model.

Reference is now made to FIG. 1B, which shows a testing device that canbe used both for building the above-described model and then, once amodel is available, for testing soil samples for contamination.

The testing device includes a spectrometer 30, and a model 32, which isconstructed as described above. The model relates a set of spectralparameters obtained from spectroscopy data to the chemical contaminationproperties. The spectral parameters are obtained from the spectroscopydata as discussed following mutation using combinations of the spectralpreprocessing operations, as explained. An output 34 indicates thecontamination state of the sample as predicted by the model fromspectral parameters obtained by the spectrometer.

In order to construct the model, the device has an all-possibilitiespreprocessor 36, which preprocesses the spectral data using all therelevant combinations of preprocessing operations to form differentmutations of the data. A data mining unit 38 then looks for latentvariables in the data and a PLS modeler 40 adds latent variables one byone to the model provided that the variables being added increase thestability of the model. The stability of the model is tested by MPSstability unit 42.

Materials and Methods

Soils and Hydrocarbons

Five soils were selected for the present study. The soils taken weredefined according to the local definition system (Dan and Koyumdjisky,1963) as well as the USDA key (Staff, 2010) as being Loess (TipicXerofluvent), Hamra (Tipic Xerocherept), Gromosol (Typic Chromoxerert),Rendenzina (Lithic Haploxeroll) and Terra Rosa (Lithic rupticXerochrept). These soils represent a wide range of soil properties asdescribed in Table 1. The soils were collected from areas that wereassumed to have no PHC contamination and were air dried and sievedthrough a 2 mm sieve twice. The soils properties were determined usingcommon methods as follows: Hydroscopic moisture content was determinedby weight loss after 24 h at 105° C. pH level and electricalconductivity were determined with a laboratory bench top 86505pH/Conductivity meter by M.R.C Ltd. in 1:2 soil and deionized water(respectively) after reaching equilibrium (30 minutes). Specific surfacearea (SSA) was determined by the absorption of a mono layer of ethyleneglycol monoethyl ether (EGME) (Carter et al., 1986). Particle sizedistributions were determined by Malvern Mastersizer 2000 followingEshel methodology (Eshel et al., 2004). SOC, SIC and Total N weredetermined by a flash CHN elemental analyzer (Thermo Scientific Flash2000).

Then, laboratory contaminated samples were prepared by mixing knownweights of several PHC types including: Octane Fuel, Diesel and Kerosenewith known quantities of soil. For making well mixed low concentrationsamples, we initially mixed a batch of 99.5 gr of soil with 0.5 gr ofthe selected PHC; the batch was then mixed again with clean soil at 48concentration levels. In order to minimize the loss of PHC components,we minimized exposure to open air as much as possible. Each sample wasplaced in an amber glass vial, capped with a PTFE lined cap at and keptat 4° C.

Spectroscopy Measurements

All samples were measured spectrally using an ASD Field spec PROspectrometer (ASD Inc., Boulder, Colo.), each measurement included 2150wavelengths between 350 and 2500 nm at 1 nm intervals. A Spectralon(Labsphere, N.H., USA.) surface was used for the calibration of thespectrometer and as a relative target. Each sample was measured 3 timesusing a self-illuminated contact probe (ASD Inc., Boulder, Colo.). Anaverage spectrum was calculated as the representative spectrum for eachsample, as the standard deviation was negligible. The first 100 (350-450nm) and last 50 (2450-2500 nm) bands were removed due to noisy signal;the remaining 2000 bands (450-2450 nm) were used as the X-Data for thechemometric analysis.

Wet Chemistry—TPH Chemical Analysis

For each set of laboratory prepared samples, several samples were testedfor validating the mixture concentration. A method for TPH measurementsin soil was used that is based on the adjusted EPA 418.1 method that wasoriginally designed for waste water. The process included extracting thehydrocarbons from 3 gr of soil sample in 15 ml of1,1,2-TrichloroTrifluoroethane (Freon 113, PESTI-S) and adding 2 gr ofsodium sulfate (Anhydrous, AR) for absorbing water and increasing theionic strength of the solution. The mixture was then placed in anultrasonic bath for hasting the process of separating the hydrocarbonsfrom the soil matrix. The extracted solvent was then mixed with SilicaGel 60 (0.063-0.200 mm) for the absorption of polar hydrocarbonscommonly found in soil organic matter, and placed on a magnetic stirrerfor 10 minutes. The mixture was then filtered with an ash-less filterpaper (Whatman 44). Finally the mixture of Freon 113 and non polarhydrocarbon (PHC) was then placed in an Infrasil quartz cuvette and theTPH level was determined by a TPH analyzer (Buck scientific Inc. modelHC-404) calibrated by standard TPH solutions (Buck scientific Inc. EPAmethod 418.1 reference standard part #404-11).

Preprocessing the Spectral Data

Each of the 15 data sets was preprocessed using the followingpreprocessing techniques including all of their possible combinations:

1. Initial Smoothing—Spectral data can be smoothed by running asmoothing algorithm, thus removing noise (while it is important toremove noise, weak signals can be affected as well). I.e. the movingaverage of a spectrum can be obtained by first taking the average of afixed small subset size of the spectrum. The fixed subset size is thenshifted forward, creating a new subset of numbers, which is averaged.This process is repeated over the entire data series. Smoothing is veryimportant when modeling data especially if the data is noisy orderivatives are involved.2. Multiplicative Scatter Correction (MSC)—MSC is used to compensate foradditive and/or multiplicative effects in spectral data and is one ofthe most commonly used normalization techniques (Geladi et al., 1985).MSC was originally designed to deal with multiplicative scatteringalone. However, a number of similar effects can be successfully treatedwith MSC, such as: path length problems, offset shifts, interference,etc. The idea behind MSC is that the two effects, amplification(multiplicative) and offset (additive), should be removed from thespectral data to avoid dominating the information (signal) in thespectral data. In MSC the light scattering is estimated for each samplerelative to an ideal sample that is obtained by averaging the completewavelength range of the data set. Each spectrum is then corrected, suchthat all samples appear to have the same scatter level as the referencespectrum (Geladi et al., 1985).3. Standard Normal Variate (SNV)—is a row-oriented transformation whichcenters and scales individual spectra (Barnes et al., 1989). Each valuein a row of data is transformed according to the formula:New value=(Old value−mean(Old row))/Stdev(Old row)Like MSC, the practical result of SNV is that it removes scatter effectsfrom spectral data. An effect of SNV is that on the vertical scale, eachspectrum is centered on zero and varies roughly from −2 to +2. Apartfrom the different scaling, the result is similar to that of MSC. Thepractical difference is that SNV standardizes each spectrum using onlythe data from that spectrum; it does not use the mean spectrum of anyset like MSC (Barnes et al., 1989). The choice between SNV and MSC is amatter of personal preference; however it is important to note that whencombined with transformation of absorbance, results will include complexnumbers with imaginary parts that cannot be modeled in PLS.4. Absorption—Spectral data performed in transmission mode can bequantified using Beer's Law (concentration˜log(1/T) where T is thetransmitted radiation). Accordingly, reflectance measurements arefrequently converted to log (1/R) values, which are then used in amanner similar to reflectance readings (Nicolaï et al., 2007).5. Continuum Removal—The continuum is the background absorption on whichother absorption features are superimposed. The spectrum is divided by aconvex hull that is fitted over it (Clark and Roush, 1984; Clark andothers, 1999).6. First Derivative—Derivation is often used to remove baseline shiftsand superposed peaks. Derivatives are usually calculated according tothe Savitzky-Golay algorithm (Savitzky and Golay, 1964). The parametersof the algorithm (interval width, polynomial order) should be carefullyselected to avoid amplification of spectral noise (Naes et al., 2002;Nicolaï et al., 2007).7. Second Derivative—While similar to the first derivative, secondderivative spectra can correct for both additive and multiplicativeeffects (like MSC) (Naes et al., 2002; Nicolaï et al., 2007).8. Final Smoothing—Running a smoothing algorithm (as described above)after other preprocessing methods can help reduce noises that wereamplified especially if derivatives were involved.

Using all possible combinations of the mentioned preprocessing methodspotentially yields 256 different mutations of the dataset. In practice,120 mutations are generally used as some of the combinations areunreasonable, for example using both MSC and SNV, using both first andsecond derivatives and combining SNV (which results in negative values)with absorbance transformation that would produce results with complexnumbers with imaginary parts that cannot be modeled in PLS.

Additional pre-processing options for spectral data are known in theliterature, and further options may be added as additional members ormay be used to replace existing operations in the dataset. Furthermore,additional options may be developed over the lifetime of the patent andalso incorporated into the preprocessing techniques used. It will beappreciated that changing the total number of preprocessing techniqueschanges the total number of combinations. Exchanging individualpreprocessing operations will change the number of reasonablecombinations independently of the total number of combinations.

Modeling Process

Before the modeling process, we divide each dataset into three groups:training, validation and test. The relationship between the chemistryand the spectroscopy data may be found via the training group and may besimultaneously cross-validated by the validation group. Finally, themodel may be applied to the test group, independently of the trainingand validation process.

Samples may be divided in the following manner: 75% for training andvalidation (validation was done by the leave one out method) and 25% fortest. In an experiment 36 samples were used for training and validationand 12 samples for testing. For reliable results that represent theentire dataset as best as possible the Conditioned Latin HypercubeSampling (cLHS) method may be used (Minasny and McBratney, 2006). cLHSis a stratified random procedure that provides an efficient way ofsampling variables from their multivariate distributions. 100,000 randomdivisions were created, and then the distributions of the Y values areexamined. The dataset division in which the distributions of thetraining/validation group and the test group are most similar to theentire dataset is then selected. The data is divided intotraining/validation and test groups based on the cLHS algorithm thatensures these groups represent the dataset very well. Nevertheless, eachtime we divide a dataset into these groups, slightly different groupsare created, affecting the modeling process to some extent.

In the experiment, the above procedure was repeated 10 times for eachdataset, thus, in fact, creating 1200 PLS models for each datasetconsisting of 120 mutations at 10 different modeling scenarios based onthe training/validation and test groups selections. The results of the1200 PLS models were then consolidated to statistically quantify theeffects of the preprocessing method, as well as the training/validationand test group selection process on the modeling results. During theconsolidation process, several statistical parameters were calculated:Average number of latent variables (nLV avg), number of latent variablesstandard deviation (nLV std), average test group R² (Test R² avg), testgroup R² standard deviation (Test R² std), average RMSEP (RMSEP avg),RMSEP standard deviation (RMSEP std), average RPD (RPD avg), RPDstandard deviation (RPD std) and % Stability.

The best models for each dataset based on the highest average RPD valueof the 10 repetitions of each mutation are shown in table 2.

PLS

The first stage of the modeling process includes a selection process forthe optimal number of LVs to use (nLV). The selection of the nLVprocedure is based on an iterative process, in which a model is builtusing the first LV only and the root mean square error of prediction(RMSEP) is recorded, then the next LV is added and the RMSEP is recordedonce again and so on. This process is repeated for the first ten LVs. Aswe add LVs the RMSEP decreases, indicating a better model, unless, theadded LV contains mostly noise and then the RMSEP increases (Esbensen etal., 2002). The optimal nLV may be determined by selecting the nLV thatproduces the lowest RMSEP, then backtrack and include a LV only if itimproves the RMSEP by at least 2%. After the optimal number of the LVsto use has been determined, PLS may be used to construct a model forpredicting the wt % ppm for each dataset (Soil type+PHC type) based onthe spectral data, for each of the 120 mutation of that data set. Themodel may then be used to predict the test group and the followingstatistical parameter may be calculated: R², RMSEP, and Ratio ofPrediction to Deviation (RPD). The best mutation for that dataset maythen be determined by the highest RPD value, results are shown in Table2.

Model Stability

A model is considered stable when all LV used reduce the RMSEP, andunstable otherwise. The % Stability may be calculated by dividing thenumber of stable models by the total number of repetitions for eachmutation.

Model Performance Scoring (MPS)

While RPD value is a well known statistical modeling criteria toevaluate performance of NIRS models (Williams and Norris, 1987), wepropose that additional statistical factors should be considered inorder to achieve stable and constant models. The MPS system suggestedherein for better evaluating NIRS model performance, is based on acombination of several statistical parameters: % Stability, RPD avg,RMSEP avg and nLV avg. The MPS is based on all 120 mutations of eachdataset; each statistical parameter value is normalized between 0 and100 so the statistical parameters will have the same weight. Based onthe position of a statistical parameter of a specific mutation relativeto the range of this statistical parameter in the dataset, thestatistical parameter is normalized. The highest value will be 100, thelowest value will be 0, and the rest of the values are linearlystretched between. As we use the average result of each statisticalparameter we also include the modeling effects of the data division intothe training/validation and test groups. The % Stability and normalizedRPD avg (NRPD) are added to the score because higher values are better,the normalized RMSEP avg and nLV avg (NRMSEP, NnLV respectively) aresubtracted from the score because lower values are better. MPS can rangebetween a theoretical 200 (the best case scenario) and −200 (worst casescenario). A general equation for calculating MPS is shown in Eq 1.MPS=% Stability+NRPD−NRMSEP−NnLV  [Eq. 1]Using Eq. 1, we select the best model of each dataset; results are shownin Table 2.

“All Possibilities” Approach: The Paracuda System

Managing and deploying thousands of chemometric models and preprocessingmethod combinations requires an automated system and distributedcomputing, whereas manual management and deployment of these tasks isimpossible. Reference is now made to FIG. 3, which is a schematic blockdiagram of a modeling and data mining software system developed byNovospec ltd. and the Remote sensing laboratory at the Tel AvivUniversity, for exploring very large datasets and finding the hiddenpatterns and relationships within the data. The system, referred tohereinafter as Paracuda, may handle spectroscopy data and may modelspectroscopy measurements against chemical constituents, for creation ofrobust prediction models. The Paracuda system is based on finding themost important variables (or wavelengths when dealing with spectroscopydata) and thus minimizing the amount of data needed to be analyzed.Paracuda utilizes the parsimony concept for avoiding situations wheremodels that have good calibration results are in fact over-fitted andproduce poor results when the test data is presented. Paracuda issuitable for using pretreatment of the data presented using multiplepreprocessing methods and their combinations, as described in thematerials and methods section. Due to the vast world of data miningalgorithms Paracuda employs what is known as an all possibilitiesapproach. The all possibilities approach applies state-of-the art linearand non linear algorithms combined with preprocessing methods formodeling the data, including Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), GeneticAlgorithms (GA), Support Vector Machines (SVMs), Fuzzy Logic (FL),Partial Least Squares (PLS), Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), PrincipleComponent Regression (PCR) and others. Such an all possibilitiesapproach, which includes testing multiple preprocessing methods andtheir combinations, dimension reduction and different modelingtechniques, requires heavy processing power, and therefore Paracuda maybe operated on a grid based supercomputer with multiple processing coresfor rapid analysis. The system is easy to operate via an excel plug-inand a web interface that enables easy and fast data transfers to theParacuda servers, changing modeling parameters for advanced users (afull automatic mode is the default) as well as controlling current jobsand monitoring their progress. The output produced by Paracuda includesjob information, preprocessing and dimension reduction information, ifapplicable, of the best models developed and their statistics. Theserver side architecture of the Paracuda system consists of multiplecomponents: Job Manager, Job Generator, Shared file system, Workers andvarious other modules, for Dimension Reduction, Data Division,Preprocessing, Excel Generator etc. In the presently describedexperiment, the Paracuda software suite was used to preprocess, dividethe data and employ the PLS modeling method for all 15 datasets. Theresults of this study are the consolidation of the 18,000 PLS modelsoutput of the Paracuda system.

Results and Discussion

nLV Selection

A sample plot of the RMSEP change when adding LVs for Loess soilcontaminated with diesel dataset that underwent smoothing and firstderivative preprocessing is shown in FIG. 2A. From FIG. 2A it is clearthat only the first 6 LVs contain information that benefits the modelingprocess; nevertheless, a threshold was set that a LV will be used onlyif it improves the RMSEP by at least 2%. In the case of FIG. 2A, whileusing LV number 6 improves the RMSEP a bit, it does not improve by morethan 2% and therefore in this case only 5 LVs are selected. In somecases, one of the LVs used in the modeling process increases the RMSEP,but the following LVs contribute only to decrease the RMSEP, directingthe use of the LV in the modeling process. FIG. 2B shows an example ofan LV to RMSEP plot of an unstable model for Loess soil contaminatedwith diesel that underwent MSC and second derivative preprocessing. Inthe case presented in FIG. 2B, it is clear that one should use 6 LVsalthough LV number 5 does not decreases the RMSEP, but rather increasesit.

Modeling Performances and Soil Properties

Referring now to FIG. 7C, there are shown Hamra and Loess soilscontaminated with diesel and kerosene, which correspond to Datasets 5,6, 8 and 9 of Table 2. Such datasets are the datasets having the bestperforming models, with average RPD values of over 20 and 10respectively. In the present experiment we found that coarse soilparticles were indicated by low SSA and reduced albedo levels, and finersoil particles were indicated by higher SSA yields and higher albedolevels. The soil matrix reflectance is equivalent to the background andthe contaminant reflectance is the target to be modeled. We hypothesisethat when we try to quantify the contaminant in the soil matrix, therelative reflectance contribution of the matrix with high SSA relativeto the contribution of the contaminant is much higher, making themodeling more difficult. Therefore, the low SSA of the Hamra and Loesssoils can explain the better performing models. As the soil brightnessaffects the Signal to Noise Ratio by producing a better signal, thebrighter soils yields better performing models. Taking intoconsideration both brightness and SSA, Hamra soil models perform betterthan Rendzina or Loess soil models although the latter are brighter.Rendzina soil models did not perform as well as Hamra and Loess soilsdue to its high SSA even though the Rendzina is a very bright soil. Thesuggestion of the current study is that SSA is a significant factor.

Optimal Model Selection

RPD is commonly used as a parameter for evaluating the performance ofchemometric models, as it incorporates both the modeling error and the Yvariables value range. A comparison of the best models selected by thehighest RPD versus the best models selected by the best MPS (describedin the previous section) is shown in FIGS. 7A-7F. From FIGS. 7A-F, it isclear that there is no significant difference in RPD, RMSEP or R² (FIGS.7A, 7B, 7C), although models selected by the best MPS show betterstability (FIG. 7E) and use fewer LVs (FIG. 7F) significantly.

While the best MPS model for a specific dataset may yield the sameperformance as the best RPD model of the same dataset, the best MPSmodel may be more stable and simpler. In some cases (Datasets 7, 8, 12and 14) the best MPS model is also the best RPD model, as shown in Table2.

Table 2 shows that modeling efficiency depends on both soil type and PHCtype. In general the brighter the soil and the heavier the PHC, theeasier it is to model. The resulting models from these datasets yieldthe best performances they could reach i.e. an average RPD of ˜23 andaverage RMSEP of ˜73 (hamra soil contaminated with kerosene dataset).Nevertheless, dark soils and lighter PHC also yield fair results with anaverage RPD of ˜4 and average RMSEP of ˜400. The effect of preprocessingon the modeling outcome is critical and could mean the differencebetween a non-working model and an excellent model. For example, thedataset showing loess contaminated with diesel contains results rangingfrom an RPD of 4 to an RPD of 14, or even an RPD of under 1 in somecases.

Reference is made in this context to the distribution of the average RPDresults in FIG. 4, for the Loess+Diesel case. The score distribution ofthe loess contaminated with diesel dataset shows almost the samedistribution, indicating the validity of the results and the importanceof the preprocessing methods employed on the modeling process results.The best preprocessing method varies from dataset to dataset as shown inTable 2, indicating the relevance of using the “all possibilities”approach in the modeling process for achieving the best results.

It is noted, that in all datasets, the best preprocessing method almostalways includes some sort of normalization procedure; in a limitedresource modeling situation with lack of proper modeling software orhigh performance computing, a normalizing preprocessing procedure maynevertheless be employed for improved performance. Due to the 10different repetitions of the division into training/validation and testgroups process that was carried out for each mutation, we may have abetter understanding of the modeling process of a certain dataset.Instead of a single RPD (or any other statistical parameter) value basedon a specific division, even when based on a well-known smart algorithmand not random, we now have two parameters: average RPD and RPD standarddeviation. Based on these values one may better understand the modelingcapabilities of the dataset and its future performances. We can see inFIG. 6 from the distribution of the RPD values for the loesscontaminated with diesel dataset, that the difference between models canreach up to 50% based on the division into the training/validation andtest groups alone.

According to the present embodiments, predicting TPH levels at lowconcentrations in selected soils at high precision levels is viable.Modeling performance results ranged with average RPD of 4 to over 20 andMPS of 100 to over 180. We found that using the MPS parameter for modelselection can yield models with equivalent performance to the best RPDselected models, but less complicated (less nLV) and more stable. Thus,we indicate the use of MPS as a new parameter for modeling performancein addition to the commonly used RPD.

Each time we divide a dataset into training, validation and test groups,although these groups represent the dataset very well, slightlydifferent groups can be created, thus affecting the modeling process tosome extent. Different preprocessing methods or their combinations needto be selected based on soil type and PHC type. Therefore, an interfacefor the all possibilities modeling approach was developed especially forthis task. The Paracuda system enabled testing of each dataset with all120 preprocessing mutations, as well as evaluating each modeling process10 times for statistically quantifying the effects of the training,validation and test group selection process on the modeling performance.A review of spectroscopic and non-spectroscopic techniques for TPH andPAH determination concluded that the reflectance spectroscopy method ischeap, fast, safe, environmental friendly and has good accuracy.

In summary, reflectance spectroscopy can be used as a viable, rapid,cost effective, environmentally friendly tool to determine TPHcontamination in soils. The use of the presented technology permitsenvironmentally friendly, rapid and cost-effective measurements of manysamples and therefore functions as a substitute for the costly and timeconsuming chemical analysis.

TABLE 1 Soil Properties Total EC¹ SSA Israeli USDA HM Sand Silt Clay SOCSIC N mS m² Classification Classification % volume % g kg⁻¹ pH¹ m⁻¹ g⁻¹Loess Tipic Xerofluvent 4.14 38.6 49.4 12 5.4 22.5 0.9 8.22 5.44 167Hamra Tipic Xerocherept 1.44 97.37 1.73 0.9 1.5 2.1 0.5 8.57 0.08 83Gromosol Typic Chromoxerert 5.23 46.46 38.98 14.56 7.6 12.5 1.3 8.680.55 238 Terra Rosa Lithic ruptic Xerochrept 9.14 19.89 57.14 22.97 20.915.5 2.6 7.71 0.36 380 Rendzina Lithic Haploxeroll 5.63 2.19 77.61 20.211.5 70.5 1.7 7.79 0.45 262

TABLE 2 Datasets and best pretreatment mutation by RPD and MPS Best RPDBest MPS Soil PHC Dataset # Mutation Mutation Gromosol 95 1 fDCrfS sDDiesel 2 Cr SfDCrfS Kerosene 3 Cr fDCr Hamra 95 4 AfD AsDCr Diesel 5SfDCrfS SSNVfDfS Kerosene 6 Cr SSNVfDfS Loess 95 7 fDCr fDCr Diesel 8SfD SfD Kerosene 9 S SSNVfS Rendzina 95 10 SAfD SfDCr Diesel 11 CrSNVfDfS Kerosene 12 SfDCr SfDCr Terra Rosa 95 13 MSC SAfD Diesel 14 AfDAfD Kerosene 15 sDCr sD

It is expected that during the life of a patent maturing from thisapplication many relevant pulse shaping and symbol decoding technologieswill be developed and the scope of the corresponding terms in thepresent description are intended to include all such new technologies apriori.

The terms “comprises”, “comprising”, “includes”, “including”, “having”and their conjugates mean “including but not limited to”.

The term “consisting of” means “including and limited to”. As usedherein, the singular form “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referencesunless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, forclarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also beprovided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in thecontext of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or inany suitable subcombination or as suitable in any other describedembodiment of the invention. Certain features described in the contextof various embodiments are not to be considered essential features ofthose embodiments, unless the embodiment is inoperative without thoseelements.

Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specificembodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modificationsand variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art.Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives,modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scopeof the appended claims.

All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are herein incorporated in their entirety by referenceinto the specification, to the same extent as if each individualpublication, patent or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. Inaddition, citation or identification of any reference in thisapplication shall not be construed as an admission that such referenceis available as prior art to the present invention. To the extent thatsection headings are used, they should not be construed as necessarilylimiting.

What is claimed is:
 1. Method for quantitative assessment of hydrocarboncontamination in soil using reflectance spectroscopy, the methodcomprising: obtaining a plurality of soil samples, the samples havingrespective hydrocarbon contaminants; spectrally analyzing each soilsample using reflectance spectroscopy, said reflectance spectroscopyobtaining spectroscopy data of said respective sample; applying to saidsample spectroscopy data of each respective soil sample a plurality ofcombinations from a set of preprocessing operations; removing ones ofsaid combinations; from each remaining combination generating arespectively different version of said sample spectroscopy data, eachversion being a respective perturbation of the sample spectroscopy data,each perturbation thereby being generated according to a respective oneof said combinations of preprocessing operations, wherein said set ofpreprocessing operations comprises initial smoothing, multiplicativescatter correction, signal normal variate, absorption, continuumremoval, first derivative, second derivative, and final smoothing; usingall of said perturbations, generating a model relating said preprocessedspectral data to respective hydrocarbon contaminants, and using saidmodel with spectroscopy data of an additional soil sample having unknowncontamination to determine respective unknown contaminants therebycharacterizing the hydrocarbon contamination of said additional soilsample.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said building a modelcomprises: using said respectively different data sets, extractinglatent variables; retrieving a first latent variable and making a firstprediction of said different contaminants; adding a candidate secondlatent variable and making a second prediction of said differentcontaminants, and if said second prediction is more accurate than saidfirst prediction then retaining said candidate second latent variablebut if said second prediction is not more accurate than said firstprediction then discarding said candidate second latent variable andrepeating with a different candidate second variable; iteratively addingfurther candidate latent variables, and repeating said prediction ofsaid different contaminants, in each case retaining respective candidatelatent variables if a corresponding prediction of said differentcontaminants is more accurate than a preceding estimate; continuing saidprocess until reaching a predetermined number of latent variables. 3.The method of claim 2, further comprising verifying said model, prior tosaid using, by further predicting of soil contaminations of averification set of additional soil samples with known contaminants. 4.The method of claim 1, comprising using between a third and a half ofall possible combinations of said preprocessing operations.
 5. Themethod of claim 1, comprising using all possible combinations of saidpreprocessing operations of said set except for combinations thatcontain mutually incompatible preprocessing operations and combinationsthat provide results that are complex numbers.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein said building said model further comprises using a modelperformance scoring parameter (MPS) defined as:MPS=% Stability+NRPD−NRMSEP−NnLV wherein said % Stability is obtained bydividing a number of stable models by a number of repetitions for eachrespectively different data set, said NRPD is a normalized average of aratio of prediction to deviation, said NRMSEP is a normalized root meansquare error in prediction, and said NnLV is a normalized predeterminedoptimal number of latent variables.
 7. The method of claim 1, whereinsaid spectroscopy comprises visible or near infra-red spectroscopy. 8.The method of claim 7, wherein said spectrally analyzing is carried outwithin a wavelength range lying between 350 and 2500 nm.
 9. The methodof claim 1, wherein said set of different preprocessing operationscomprises data mining operations, said data mining operations in turncomprising both linear and non-linear algorithms.
 10. The method ofclaim 9, wherein said set of different data mining operations comprisesat least two members of the group consisting of: artificial neuralnetworks, genetic algorithms, support vector machines, fuzzy logic,partial least squares, multiple linear regression, metric learning andprinciple component regression.
 11. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising arranging said pre-processed spectroscopy data into datasetsusing conditioned Latin Hypercube Sampling.
 12. The method of claim 1,comprising taking said plurality of different soil samples from aplurality of different contamination types.
 13. A testing device fortesting soil samples for contamination, the testing device comprising: acurrent test soil sample o, the current test soil sample having one ormore unknown soil contaminants; a spectrometer or spectral imagerconfigured to carry out reflectance spectroscopy on said current testsample, thereby to obtain a spectral data set from said current testsample; a spectral preprocessor configured to carry out a plurality ofdifferent combinations of a set of predefined preprocessing operations,each combination providing a different perturbation of said spectraldata set, said spectral preprocessor further configured to remove onesof said combinations; a parameterizer, configured to obtain currentsample spectral parameters from remaining ones of said combinations,thereby obtaining parameters of respectively different perturbations ofsaid data set, each perturbation thereby being generated according to arespective one of said combinations of preprocessing operations, whereinsaid set of preprocessing operations comprises initial smoothing,multiplicative scatter correction, signal normal variate, absorption,continuum removal, first derivative, second derivative, and finalsmoothing; a model relating sets of spectral parameters obtained fromspectroscopy data to respective associated one or more soilcontaminants; and a spectral comparator configured to compare spectralparameter sets of said model with said spectral parameters of saidcurrent soil sample to find a set from said model that matches saidspectral parameters of said current soil sample, said model therebyidentifying a respective associated one or more contaminations; and anoutput for indicating said respective associated one or morecontaminants, thereby characterizing said current test soil sample interms of its contaminants.